Author: Maarten Koning

Albert Hofmann and LSD

On Friday, 16 April 1943, pharmaceutical researcher Albert Hofmann (1906-2008) had an extraordinary experience at the Sandoz company in Basel. He had been researching a circulatory stimulant in vain for years.

On this day, however, he had taken a small amount of Lysergic Acid Diethylamide. He hallucinated, balanced on the verge of madness and ended up feeling supreme bliss.

On 19 April, he repeated the experiment with the same effects: hallucinations, dizziness, and anxiety, followed by calmness and a feeling of happiness. He had invented LSD (Lysergic Acid Diethylamide).

The drug entered the market in 1949 as a medicine in psychotherapy to relieve mental suffering. In the 1960s, however, the drug took on another target group: the hippie scene, first in America with its breakthrough at the 1969 Woodstock festival, then in Europe.

LSD became the symbol of escapism from the parallel world of the anti-establishment movement. The drug had become an addictive stimulant with all the misery that it implies. In America and then Europe, LSD was soon banned.

Hofmann was proud of his invention and its use in psychotherapy. However, he was shocked and unprepared for the abuse from the 1960s onwards.

He must have often thought about it in his hallucinatory home near Burg in the Leimental (Solothurn Canton) on his walks in the French-Swiss Jura and the  Cantons of Solothurn and Basel-Landschaft.

The Villa of Albert Hofmann near Burg

Memorial at the Rittimatte for Albert Hofmann (1906-2008) and his wife Anita Hofmann-Guanella (1913-2007)

Albert Hofmann bank on the Swiss-French border

Burg, 11th century

The Remeltower(Rämelturm), 832 m. 

Biederthal (Elzas)

Bättwil (canton Solothurn) 

Ettingen (canton Basel-Landschaft)

The Flühmühle in Flüh

Flüh (canton Solothurn), a small village with many restaurants for the annual 250,000 pilgrims of Mariastein.

Rodersdorf (canton Solothurn)

The Council of States

The parliamentary system consists of two chambers. This article focuses on the Council of States, also known as the Ständerat (Kantonskammer, Zweite Kammer, Kleine Kammer, Senate, Chambre de réflexion). The other chamber, the National Council (Nationalrat, or Volkskammer, Erste Kammer, Grosse Kammer), will be discussed in the following article.

This contribution provides a brief review of the history, role, and position within the constitutional system of the Council of States.

History

It was not self-evident in 1848 that the Council of States would be created. It owes its existence, in particular, to the “Sonderbundskrieg” of 1847.

In this last (civil) war (Sonderbundskrieg) on Swiss territory, Catholic conservatives from predominantly rural cantons (Uri, Schwyz, Unterwalden, Wallis, Zug. Lucerne, and Fribourg) opposed the liberal (which is different from democratic) Protestant trading and industrial cantons (led mainly by Bern, Basel, and Zurich) of the Eidgenossenschaft (Vaud and Neuchâtel were neutral).

Switzerland was not yet the service and industrial nation it would become in the decades after 1848. Agriculture was opposed to trade, Catholic to Protestant, (rural) conservative to (urban) liberal.

The Swiss civil war caused few casualties and lasted for only a few weeks, primarily due to the reconciliatory attitude of the victors.

The insight grew that the losers – the minority of (Catholic) rural cantons – also needed an authentic voice in the confederation. The three languages — German, French and Italian — were officially recognised. Romansh became the fourth language in 1938.

The federal counterweight to the federal parliament was the Council of States, chosen by each canton’s (male) inhabitants. There were 44 seats for the twenty-five cantons: two for the nineteen and six for the six-half cantons. The new canton of Jura has had two seats since 1979, bringing the total of seats to 46.

Functioning

Men and women elect the Council of States according to the electoral law of each canton (nowadays based on the Majority system (Majorzsystem, the absolute majority wins) except in Vaud and Neuchâtel, where the proportionality system (Proporzsystem, the proportionality of the votes) prevails.

The people vote on members of political parties, mostly the same as the parties in elections for the National Council. The Council of States is formally based on the “Milizsystem” with half-time politicians.

The current trend, however, is towards more full-time politicians.  Each canton has the same vote, regardless of its religion, population, or economic significance.

The two chambers

The Council of States has the same powers as the National Council.

The Council of States is the federal counterpart to the National Council, the federal representative Body.  The Council of States meets separately from the National Council (except when electing the government, federal judges/administrators, and, in times of war, the Supreme Commander (General) of the armed forces).

Both bodies meet quarterly in Bern’s Federal Palace (Bundeshaus / Palais fédéral). Federal laws are not subject to constitutional review by the (highest) judge.

The parliamentary instruments of the Council of States are discussed in the article on the National Council because they are identical.

Each body has nine committees. They work with the Federal Council, experts, departments, NGOs and two committees of (financial) supervision.

Both bodies elect a president and a vice-president for a one-year term, reflecting the consistent and successful choice in the Swiss Constitution to limit the concentration of power.

The Council of States can be the initiator of legislation or the first to deal with a proposal or decision of the Government.

The Council of States is then the “Erstrat” (first council), but “Zweitrat” (second council) when the National Council is the first in this respect.

The presidents of the Council of States and the National Council draw up a schedule. The Council of States has taken a slight lead over the National Council and is Erstrat in 55% of the cases (many hundreds a year).

Both chambers must fully agree on every letter and comma. In the event of disagreement, a “Differenzbereinigungsverfahren” is first initiated, a procedure designed to reach an agreement within a maximum of three subsequent efforts.

They usually succeed in bridging their differences. When this procedure fails, an Einigungskonferenz is the last resort to reaching an agreement. Thirteen members of each body discuss, compromise, and almost always reach an agreement. When they fail, it is the end of the legislation process, but it rarely happens.

The relationship with the cantons

The members of the Council of States vote as independent members of a federal body without any instructions from the cantons (Instruktionsverbot).

For this reason, the Konferenz der Kantonsregierungen (KdK) was founded in 1993. The complaint was that members of the Council of States were relatively independent federal politicians than representatives of the cantons.

The cantons often had too little, too late, and too limited influence in the national legislative process. The KvK proved to be an excellent remedy for this shortcoming.

Position

The Council of States plays a prominent role in the legislative and decision-making process, monitoring and cooperating with the government and its seven departments.

The Council of States plays an equally strong, if not more decisive, political role than the National Council. Its political importance and prestige are also reflected in the number of former members of the National Council who hold seats in the Council of States. The opposite hardly happens anymore.

This system and the Council of States have shortcomings and gaps. Indisputably, however, this federal body plays a vital role in the parliamentary system and in promoting the cohesion of Switzerland’s multicultural society.

The Werthenstein Monastery

In the village of Werthenstein (canton of Lucerne) near the river Emme, the bishop of Constance consecrated the first pilgrimage chapel in 1520. The church building was marked by the transition from late Gothic to Renaissance.

Niklaus Ratzenhofer (1600-1649) described the origins of the pilgrimage site in his book “Kurtze Erzehlung dess Ursprungs und Wunderzeichen des Gotteshauses unser lieben Frawen zu Werdenstein” (1618).

Around 1500, a Dutch golddigger set up camp for the night near the Emme. He heard “Ein gar herrliches, lieblichs und süesses Gesang und er sah einen schönen Glanz von vilen hellen Liechetern (A wonderful, lovely and sweet song and he saw a beautiful glow of many bright lights)”. He then hung an image of Our Lady (Mary).

In the following years, more and more stories of healings circulated, and the influx of pilgrims increased rapidly. The Lucerne government then decided to build a chapel, resulting in the construction of the 1520 chapel.

The famous statue of Mary, a Pietà carved from wood, arrived at the pilgrimage site in 1528. It originally stood in the Frybach chapel near Huttwil (canton of Bern). After the canton of Bern switched to the other faith in 1528 during the Reformation, the statue was brought to Werthenstein. As a result, the pilgrimage experienced a great revival.

The present Baroque church was consecrated in 1616. The bishop of Constance consecrated the new cross altar and the two chapels at the main entrance in 1621. The altar was a gift from King Louis XIII of France (1601-1643). The brothers Christoph and Hans Ludwig Pfyffer donated the two chapels.

The gift from the French King underlined the excellent relationship between the (Catholic) Cantons of the Eidgenossenschaft based on the Eternal Peace of 1516 and the many Swiss mercenaries in French service.

The source of the later “Gnadenbrünnelis” was discovered in 1634. The spring is on the path from the wooden bridge over the Emme to the church. Many stories circulated about the miraculous cures through the spring’s healing water, and the pilgrimage site became increasingly crowded.

The Franciscans moved into the newly built monastery building in 1636. Between the 17th and early 18th centuries, the pilgrimage experienced its heyday, with up to 80,000 pilgrims visiting each year.

At the end of the 18th century, however, the flow of pilgrims declined rapidly. The canton of Lucerne finally abolished the Werthenstein monastery in 1838. Much of the furnishings were auctioned off, and the rooms were used as an institution for the deaf and dumb.

Today, the monastery is a parish. The halls and rooms are available for events, and there is overnight accommodation for pilgrims.

The complex is surrounded by waterfalls (the Sulzigbach waterfall, the Stäubligbach waterfall and the Bielbach waterfall), the monastery garden and beautiful hiking trails.

(Source and further Information: Werthenstein Monastery)

Fondation Beyeler in Riehen and the founders Ernst and Hildy Beyeler

As one of the foremost gallerists of his time, Ernst Beyeler (1921-2010) assembled, with his wife Hildy (1922-2008), one of the world’s most significant collections of modern art. It is one of the most visited art museums in Switzerland today.

Basel, Baumleingasse  9, the gallery of Ernst and Hildy Beyeler from 1945 to 2010

Since 1997, the collection has been housed at the Fondation Beyeler (Riehen, canton Basel-Stadt) in a building designed by Renzo Piano. The collection includes approximately 400 works from the 19th, 20th, and 21st centuries, including paintings, drawings, sculptures, installations, photography, and film.

Spalenberg, Basel, The Sperber-Kollegium and ‘die Ehrespalebärglemer’

The Foundation celebrates its 25th anniversary with the most comprehensive exhibition of works from its collection.

The exhibition (30.10.2022 – 8.1.2023) brings together approximately 100 works by 31 artists, from classics of modern art to recent acquisitions of contemporary art. Significant works by Vincent van Gogh, Claude Monet, Pablo Picasso, Henri Matisse, Alberto Giacometti, Mark Rothko, Andy Warhol, Louise Bourgeois, and others are set alongside contemporary positions by Marlene Dumas, Felix Gonzalez-Torres, Tacita Dean, Rachel Whiteread, and others.

The exhibition offers a chance to experience the Fondation Beyeler’s collection in all its depth and impressive quality.

The exhibition is further enriched by integrating several hyperrealist sculptures by celebrated American artist Duane Hanson (1925–1996).

The Fondation has already organised a series of other exhibitions in this festive year. The first (23 January-22 May) was a major retrospective on “Georgia O’Keeffe“, followed by “Passages- Landscape, Figure and Abstraction” (12 February-2 August) and “Sondra Perry: Lineage for a Phantom Zone” (13 February-13- March).

The summer exhibition “Mondrian” (June 5-October 9) marked the 150th anniversary of the artist’s birth. As one of the most influential artists of the avant-garde movement, he shaped the evolution of painting from figuration to abstraction.

Extension

The Fondation recently acquired the neighbouring Islein-Weber Park. This extension will connect the two parks. Besides, three new buildings, adapted to the houses of Riehen, will complete the complex: a new House of Art, a pavilion for events, and a building for administration.

The gardens will be doubled in size, and a new recreational area will appear in the centre of Riehen. The new buildings will blend harmoniously into the natural environment, just like the present architecture.

(Further information: www.fondationbeyeler.ch).

Mark Rothko (1903-1970). Ohne Titel, 1968, Sammlung Beyeler. Duane Hanson. An old Couple on a Bench, 1994

Henri Rousseau (1844-1910). Der hungrige Löwe wirft sich auf die Antilope (1898-1905). Sammlung Beyeler. Duane Hanson. Playing Children, 1979.

Anselm Kiefer (* 1945). Dein und mein Alter und das Alter der Welt, 1997. Sammlung Beyeler. Duane Hanson, Lunchbreak, 1989. 

Paul Cézanne (1839-1906), Madame Cézanne à la chaise jaune, 1888-1890. Sammlung Beyeler. Duane Hanson. Old Lady in Folding Chair, 1976.

Plakat der Ausstellung. Vincent van Gogh (1853-1890), Champ aux meules de blé, 1890 (Sammlung Beyeler) und Duane Hanson. Artist with Ladder, 1972.

Impressions of the museum complex 

 

The garden

The surroundings

The Electoral System

Introduction

Direct democracy, federalism, and a unique political system featuring directly elected members of the executive (government) at the canton and municipal levels are the foundations of the country’s political stability. 

Collegiality applies at three levels: the municipality, the canton, and the federal government (Bund/Fédération). The government speaks with one voice. Parliament can never dismiss the government. The government can not call early elections or dissolve Parliament.

 The Konkordanzsystem, in short, means that the seven members are appointed based on a fixed distribution of seats per party.

 It reflects the political balance of power over a more extended period. A major electoral victory of a new party never immediately leads to a seat in the government. First, this party has to prove its stability and sustainability.

 The seven seats are distributed among the four largest parties: 2-2-2-1, with one party occasionally losing to the others. However, the Parliament ultimately chooses the individual members.

The electoral system 

The electoral system is equally crucial for political stability. Switzerland has two parallel systems: the Majorzsystem, which is based on the absolute majority of votes per candidate, and the Proporzsystem, which is proportional representation based on the number of votes a party obtains.

 The people’s representation in the parliaments of the municipality, canton, or the National Council is, in most cases (not all; see below), elected based on the proportional representation of the number of votes obtained by each party.

 However, the Ständerat/ Conseil des États) is elected per canton based on the Majorzsystem. There are two seats per canton. Only Basel-Stadt, Basel-Landschaft, Obwalden, Nidwalden, Appenzell Innerrhoden, and Appenzell Ausserrhoden have one seat (out of 46 seats).

 The municipalities and cantonal governments (usually comprising 5-7 members) are directly elected based on the Majorzsystem, which is perhaps unique in Europe and the world.

 Advantage

Proportional representation focuses on parties with a more substantial political profile. Smaller parties have a better chance of winning seats.

Political profiling is less intense in a majority choice between candidates (not parties). These individuals (members of a party) present themselves directly to the voters. They cannot hide behind the party. The bond between voter and candidate is much stronger.

 In the Majorz system, majorities are not easily achieved with pure ideology. One has to be moderate to attract voters from the centre. After all, it is about the absolute majority, which implies a willingness to compromise. The main advantage of this system is guaranteeing the political centre. It also prevents fragmentation into numerous small parties, giving governments stability.

 The electoral system ensures proportional representation of votes that elect the parliament. An absolute majority chooses the government’s candidates. The governments of the communes and cantons have close links with the voters.

 Constituencies

 The cantons organise the Senate elections and cantonal elections for the government. They must comply with Art. 51-1 BV: direct democratic elections.  The canton is divided into constituencies or districts.

 The proportional system applies when choosing the parliament. However, several cantons, including Schwyz, Graubünden, Appenzell Ausserrhoden, and Appenzell Innerrhoden, have constituencies with a Majorzsystem.

 The Supreme Court

 The Supreme Court (Bundesgericht/Tribunal fédéral) has ruled that it can be detrimental to democracy(as was recently the case in Graubünden). Article 51-1 of the Federal Constitution states that the condition of democratic elections has to be fulfilled.

 Therefore, every vote has equal value and must be counted in Parliament. For this reason, the Supreme Court decided on 26 September 2014 (Appenzell Ausserrhoden) and 26 September 2019 (Graubünden) that the Majorzsystem in some constituencies does not sufficiently represent the voters.

 A Majorzsystem in a constituency is possible, but only under certain conditions (e.g., few inhabitants and less importance of political parties). For this reason, Graubünden is adopting a new system for the 2022 parliamentary elections. The adjusted system has been approved in a referendum.

 Conclusion

The proportional representation system gives every citizen a vote that counts, ensuring representation of the people by the people.

It is different for the government; the voter for a seat in the Senate first looks to the person. The Majorzsystem is based on ‘that the best may win’. Thus, there is a strong link between the voter and the politician.

The electoral system is a relatively well-functioning construct that allows individuals to make direct choices for the government and through parties for the Parliament.

Source: U. Häfelin, W. Haller, D. Thurnherr, Schweizerisches Bundesstaatsrecht, Basel 2020); A. Auer, Staatsrecht der schweizerischen Kantone, Bern, 2016.